Mistaken Identities in The Taming of the Shrew :: Taming Shrew Essays

Mistaken Identities in The Taming of the Shrew Throughout the play The Taming of the Shrew, William Shakespeare has utilized several ingenious techniques resulting in an effective gear up of work. One of the more unique and creative methods is the use of ill-conceived identity. With the use of mistaken identity, Shakespeare has successfully given the play an element of humor from the beginning to the end. The mistaken identity within the two induction scenes must have been quite humorous for the upper-class noblemen who watched the play. In Shakespeares time, the upper-class often found their amusement in the poorer, more unfortunate lower-class. Christopher Sly was no exception. When the lord finds Sly, a drunk beggar, he immediately plots a practical joke to play on him. The lord, who is in truth wealthy and obviously has a lot of time on his hands decides to treat Sly as a nobleman and see how he reacts. In addition to ordering his servants to treat Sly as their mast er, he too pretends to be a servant. The most amusing part of this induction occurs when Sly becomes positive(p) that he is indeed a nobleman. When he first awakes, he thinks that everyone is playing a joke on him. After some convincing, Sly gives in and believes that he really was suffering from a long sickness. When Sly asks the page, who is pretending to be his wife to undress and join him in bed, the audience must have reacted with loud laughter knowing that his wife is actually the same sex as he. Although Sly does not understand the lifestyle of the upper-class, it is quite obvious that he is enjoying it while it lasts. in that location are several cases of mistaken identity present in the subplot which involves Bianca and her suitors. One humorous situation caused by mistaken identity arises in Act I, view ii, when several of the characters meet each other. Here, the audience learns how gullible Gremio is when he is tricked by Lucentio into believing that Luce ntio is a schoolmaster. Gremio does not realize that he is actually giving a fellow competitor an opportunity to court Bianca. The dramatic irony here is amusing to the audience because they all know that Lucentio is not going to speak passing of Gremio like he had promised.

The Dance :: essays research papers

THE DANCEIt was a minatory, windy night and Stacey Browning was just finishing work at The Tree Stump Burger Barn. It wasnt a busy night, so Stacy suggested that her heavily pregnant boss, Sarah, leave work early, and Stacey would clean and lock up. Stacey was trying to stretch her night out for as tenacious as possible, because tomorrow night was the direct dance, and she knew her mother wouldnt make her go if she was too tired from a hard night at work. Stacey loathed the school dance because it was a dance only enjoyed by cool, popular, beautiful people, and Stacey was not one of them.At ten-thirty, Stacey turned off the lights in the building, locked the big, glass doors and stepped into the cold, dark night. She decided not to ring her mother and ask to be picked up, because it was only a short walk home and she felt guilty about wakeful her at such a late hour on such a cold night. Stacey was only just out of the driveway of the restaurant, when she realised she had odd h er purse in the building. She quickly walked back, unlocked the doors, and turned on the lights. She walked into the kitchens to look for her purse. While she was in there, she heard the doors open and the service bell ring. "Sorry, were closed," Stacey called, as she walked out of the kitchens. She looked around the restaurant, and no-one was there. "They must of left," she thought. As she was about to turn off the lights, Stacey felt a cold shiver. "I knew I forgot something else," Stacey mumbled as she walked over to the air-conditioning unit to turn it off, but it was already off. She stood there puzzled for a moment, then walked back to the light switch, trying to think if she had forgotten anything else. With out warning a gust of wind blew the doors open, and circled in the centre of the restaurant. A woman appeargond in the middle of the wind. She looked young, in her late twenties, dressed in a white clothe which covered her whole body, except her eyes.Stacy stepped back shocked and stuttered "W-wwho are y-y-you?" "I am here to help you," the woman said, with a strong foreign accent. "You are worried about the dance?" she said."Yes, I am." Stacey replied.

A Comparison of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X Essay

Martin Luther King and Malcolm X Different Men With the Same Goal Martin Luther King jr. and Malcolm X are pacify highly controversial African-American leaders. Martin, a Christian integrationist, and Malcolm, a Muslim nationalist have been a powerful force against racial injustice. Each piece sacrificed his life for the freedom of his people however, Martin and Malcolm had taken very different approaches in achieving equality and identity for African-Americans in the land of their birth. In order to better discover why King and X took the course of action each took, one must take into account a little bit of their background. Martin Luther King jr., was innate(p) in Atlanta, Georgia into a middle-class family. The church was his source of leadership development and it helped provide him with moral values. Home and church were the most important influences in the early life of King. In both contexts, he was introduced to the integrationist values of protest, accommodations, sel f-help and optimism as they were related to the religious themes of justice, love and hope. He was introduced to the value of education as a potent way of helping him assert his self-worth to become a church and community leader and to fight racism in the larger society. Kings basis for his campaign of nonviolence originated in the highest type of love - love for people who hate you. King preached that the combination of agape (spiritual love) with nonviolent action would pull up change(Walton 78). It is quite easy for me to think of a God of love mainly because I grew up in a family where love was central and where benignant relationships were ever present. It is quite easy for me to think of the universe as basically friend... ... cowardice. For many blacks nonviolence was the only option because violence would have cost them their jobs, their homes, and nonetheless their lives. It was a creative way that an African-American could fight for freedom and at the same time avoid g enocide, the logical consequence of racism. Works Cited Goldman, Peter. The Death and behavior of Malcolm X. 2nd ed. Urbana University of Illinois Press, 1979. Hamilton, Charles V. The Black Experience in American Politics. New York G. P. Putnams Sons, 1973. Samuels, Gertrude. Two ways Black Muslim and N.A.A.C.P.New York Times Magazine, 12 May 1963, pg 87. Walton, Hanes Jr,. The policy-making Philosophy of Martin Luther King, Jr. New York Greenwood Press, 1971. X, Malcolm and Alex Haley. The Autobiography or Malcolm X. New York Ballantine Books, 1973

Psychoanalytic Analysis of Shakespeare?s Hamlet Essay -- essays resear

If unmatched wants to truly understand the psychological implications of William Shakespeares Hamlet, the primary focus should be on the character Hamlet, and how he develops and modifies through forth the play. victimisation the fundamentals of the psychoanalytic perspective of critical evaluation, one would be able to truly identify and explore the true nature of Hamlet, and the effects that his character has on the situation surrounding him. In order to gain a true understanding of most of the detail that is implied through Hamlets way of characterisation himself to others, it is vital to number deep into the actions that are carried out, and analyze them psychoanalytically. Many have already written works that evaluate the play using this method, and one tidy sum also do this simply by having a good understanding of what a psychological evaluation truly is. Before beginning the analysis, it would be undeniable to have a proper understanding of the psychoanalytical perspect ive. After attaining knowledge about the perspective, and training Hamlet of course, one can begin to make key connections using details from the play.In the actual play, one of the principle argument is whether Hamlet is truly mad or not. To analyze this for validity, one would have to look at the linguistics of the play and the situations that play out within it. There is concrete evidence, as well as implied detail, which leads one to believe that Hamlet is unaccompanied acting as if he were mad in order to carry out his plan to avenge the death of the late King Hamlet. One of the freshman examples of this evidence shows itself when Hamlet warns Horatio of what hes planning, and in effect, not to blow his cover.Here, as before, never, so help you mercy, how strange or odd soeer I wear off myself, As I, perchance, hereafter shall think meet to put an antic disposition on, that you, at such times seeing me, never shall...note that you know aught of methis is not to do, so grac e and mercy at your most need help you, swear. (Hamlet)This quotation clearly shows that Hamlet is conscious of the situation, and will pretend to be mad. But, at that place is other evidence that may lead one to think about whether or not Hamlet may have actually been slightly mad. For instance, it strikes one as odd that Hamlet waits so long, and goes through so much trouble in order to kill King Claudius. Hamlet wa... ...alyze the work, or physical exertion what others have understood from analyzing Hamlet themselves to draw conclusions and gain an in-depth understanding of what the character is going through from a psychological perspective. There are endless sources out there than can be used as references to support this sort of inquiry. It all comes down to comprehending the work and the perspective. Its not necessary to scrutinize the knowledgeable workings of the play in order to enjoy it, it never has been. Sometimes its not until the second or third, or even fourth re ading that the reader begins to ask the more advanced questions and demand more of the text. Once that is accomplished, the rest is a proverbial piece of cake.Works CitiedShakespeare, William. Hamlet Prince of Denmark. Literature indication Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Comp. Robert Deyanni. Boston McGraw-Hill, 2000. 941-1042.Paredes-vonOyen, Erin. Has Hamlet Gone Crazy?. 26 October. 2000 .Takahashi, Yasunari. Speech, Deceit, and Catharsis A Reading of Hamlet. Hamlet and Japan. Ed. Yoshiko Uno. Hamlet Collection 2. New York AMS, 1995. 3-19.Adair, Vance. rewriting the (S)crypt Gazing on Hamlets Interiors. Q/W/E/R/T/Y 6 (1996) 5-15.

The Mortuary Complex of King Zoser :: essays papers

The Mortuary Complex of female monarch ZoserAround 2680 BC, a precedence was set for future Egyptian architecture, as well as over both architectural design. Only a short distance to the south of the antecedent burial mastabas of the starting and second Egyptian dynasties, the Mortuary Complex of King Zoser was constructed. finesse atop a stretch of high ground at Saqqara overlooking the city of Memphis, this complex is believed to be the first of its time to utilize new techniques in Egyptian construction, and was by far the largest and most elaborate of any tombs strengthened before it.Just as the burial sites before, King Zosers complex was built facing the Nile River to the east. A large rock wall surrounded the complex, measuring 550 by 275 meters, with the only noticeable entrance being at the southern ingredient of the east face. When one and only(a) enters the complex they then head north through the entry corridor. This hyperstyle hall is lined with two rows of half columns engaged to spur walls. These columns draw out a stone ceiling cut to resemble rounded logs. After passing through a doubled number of columns at the end of the hall, one comes into a large court. This court is known as the Heb-sed court, and was presumably used for ceremonies. At the southwest corner of this court is a building of solid masonry, and to the north, in another separate court, is two temple buildings with columns carved to imitate the lotus and the papyrus plants. Just to the west of this court lay the stepped pyramid under which King Zosers body lay in a granite sarcophagus. This sarcophagus was originally topped with a simple stone mastaba, but was then enlarged three times. This stepped pyramid was then enlarged to the north and the west, making its final size consisting of six stages standing at 204 feet tall. The stepped pyramid concealing the burial chamber was consistent with previous burial sites however, none before had been as extravagant and contained as many additional structures as King Zosers complex.The man regarded with designing this structure, Imhotep, is also considered the first known architect. The evidence found at Zosers complex suggests that architects held a higher place in clubhouse among the wealthy and educated Egyptians. This differed from early Mesopotamian society where the kings took credit for their burial site constructions, hence the reason for no evidence of who designed the previous structures.

The Mortuary Complex of King Zoser :: essays papers

The Mortuary Complex of King ZoserAround 2680 BC, a precedence was set for future Egyptian architecture, as well as over all architectural design. Only a short distance to the south of the previous sepulchre mastabas of the first base and second Egyptian dynasties, the Mortuary Complex of King Zoser was constructed. Lying atop a stretch of high ground at Saqqara overlooking the city of Memphis, this complex is believed to be the first of its time to utilize new techniques in Egyptian construction, and was by far the largest and most elaborate of any tombs built before it.Just as the burial sites before, King Zosers complex was built facing the Nile River to the east. A large rock wall surrounded the complex, measuring 550 by 275 meters, with the only noticeable magnetize being at the southern part of the east face. When one enters the complex they then head north through the entry corridor. This hyperstyle hall is lined with devil rows of half columns engaged to spur walls. These columns carry a stone ceiling cut to resemble rounded logs. After passing through a two-fold number of columns at the end of the hall, one comes into a large judgeship. This accost is known as the Heb-sed court, and was presumably used for ceremonies. At the southwest corner of this court is a building of solid masonry, and to the north, in another separate court, is two temple buildings with columns carved to imitate the lotus and the papyrus plants. Just to the west of this court lay the stepped pyramid under which King Zosers body lay in a granite sarcophagus. This sarcophagus was originally topped with a simple stone mastaba, exclusively was then enlarged three times. This stepped pyramid was then enlarged to the north and the west, making its final size consisting of six stages standing at 204 feet tall. The stepped pyramid concealment the burial chamber was consistent with previous burial sites however, none before had been as extravagant and contained as ma ny additional structures as King Zosers complex.The man regarded with designing this structure, Imhotep, is also considered the first known architect. The evidence found at Zosers complex suggests that architects held a higher place in golf-club among the wealthy and educated Egyptians. This differed from early Mesopotamian society where the kings took credit for their burial site constructions, hence the reason for no evidence of who designed the previous structures.

Lupain Ng Taglamig

DETERGENT PESTICIDE DISINFFECTANT PRESERVATIVES ADDITIVES MEDICINES BLEACH PETROLEUM JELLY ALUMINUM FOIL CORN STARCH NAME. ROMELYN. VILLAMAYOR YR&SEC IV-EDISON TEACHER MRS. SALUDES NAMEERICA E. VILLAMAYOR GR&SEC VI-MALINIS TEACHERMRPENIDA A detergentis asurfactantor a multifariousness of surfactants with cleaning properties in dilute solutions. 1These substances be usu totallyy alkylbenzenesulfonates, a family of compounds that argon similar tosoap moreover are more soluble in unexpressed water, because the polar sulfonate (of detergents) is slight likely than the polar carboxyl (of soap) to bind to calcium and saucily(prenominal) ions found in hard water.In most kinfolk contexts, the termdetergentby itself refers specifically tolaundry detergentordish detergent, as opposed tohand soapor some other fictional characters of cleaning sequencents. Detergents are comm precisely available as powders or concentrated solutions. Detergents, like soaps, work because they areamph iphilic p craftlyhydrophilic(polar) and partlyhydrophobic(non-polar). Their dual nature facilitates the mixture of hydrophobic compounds (like oil and grease) with water. Because air is not hydrophilic, detergents are in any casefoaming agentsto varying degrees.Pesticidesare substances or mixture of substances intended for pr level off commodeg, destroying, repelling or mitigating anypest. 1Pesticides are a special kind of products for figure out protection. Crop protection products in general protect plants from damaging influences such as weeds, maladys or insects. A pesticide is generally achemicalor biological agent (such as avirus,bacterium,antimicrobialordisinfectant) that through its effect deters, incapacitates, kills or otherwise discourages pests.Target pests can includeinsects, plantpathogens, weeds,molluscs,birds,mammals,fish, nematodes (roundworms), andmicrobesthat destroy property, cause nuisance, spread disease or arevectorsfor disease. Disinfectantsare substances that are use to non-living objects to destroymicroorganismsthat are living on the objects. 1Disinfection does not necessarily kill all microorganisms, especially rebarbativebacterial spores it is less effective thansterilisation, which is an extreme physical and/or chemical process that kills all types of life. 1Disinfectants are assorted from otherantimicrobial agentssuch asantibiotics, which destroy microorganisms within the body, andantiseptics, which destroy microorganisms on livingtissue.Disinfectants are besides different frombiocides the latter are intended to destroy all forms of life, not middling microorganisms. Disinfectants work by destroying the cell wall of microbes or interfering with the metabolism. Apreservativeis a naturally occurring or synthetically produced substance that is added to products such as foods,pharmaceuticals, paints, biological samples, wood, etc. o preventdecompositionbymicrobialgrowth or by undesirablechemicalchanges. Food additivesare subst ances added to food to extend flavor or enhance its taste and appearance. Some additives lose been used for centuries for example, preserving food bypickling(withvinegar),salting, as withbacon, preservingsweetsor usingsulfur dioxideas in somewines. With the advent of processed foods in the hour half of the 20th century, umteen more additives live been introduced, of both natural and artificial origin.Medicineis theapplied experienceor practice of thediagnosis,treatment, and prevention ofdisease. 1It encompasses a variety ofhealth carepractices evolved to maintain and restorehealthby thepreventionandtreatmentofillnessinhuman beings. Contemporary medicine applieshealth science,biomedical look into, andmedical technologytodiagnoseand treat injury and disease, typically throughmedicationorsurgery, but also through therapies as diverse aspsychotherapy,external splints & traction,prostheses,biologics,ionizing radiationand others. blanchhas been serialized in the Japanese manga a nthologyWeekly Shonen JumpsincAugust 2001, and has been collected into 56tankobonvolumes as of September 2012. Since its publication,Bleachhas spawned amedia franchisethat includes ananimatedtelevision seriesthat was produced byStudio Pierrotin Japan from 2004 to 2012, twooriginal video animations, four animated feature films, 7rock musicals, andnumerous video games, as well as some types ofBleach-relatedmerchandise.Petroleum jelly,petrolatum,white petrolatumorsoft paraffin,CAS turn of events8009-03-8, is asemi-solidmixture ofhydro nose candys(withcarbonnumbers mainly higher than 25),1originally promoted as a topicalointmentfor its healing properties. Its folkloric medicinal value as a cure-all has since been modified by better scientific understanding of appropriate and inappropriate uses (seeusesbelow). However, it is recognized by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration(FDA) as an approvedover-the-counter(OTC) discaseprotectant, and remains widely used incosmeticskin care.Alum inium foilisaluminiumprepared in thinmetal leaves, with a thickness less than 0. 2 millimetres (8mils), thinner gauges d allow to 6m (0. 2mils) are also commonly used. 1In the USA, foils are commonly gauged inmils. Standard household foil is typically 0. 016 millimetres (0. 6mils) thick and heavy duty household foil is typically 0. 024 millimetres (0. 9mils). Thefoilis pliable, and can be readily stage set or wrapped around objects. Thin foils are fragile and are some snipslaminatedto other materials such asplasticsorpaperto make them more useful.Aluminium foilsupplantedtin foilin the mid 20th century. Corn starch is used as athickening agentinsoupsand liquid-based foods, such assauces,graviesandcustardsby assortment it with a cold liquid to form a paste or slurry. It is sometimes preferred overflourbecause it forms atranslucentmixture, quite a than anopaqueone. As the starch is heated, the molecular chains unravel, allowing them to collide with other starch chains to form a mes h, thickening the liquid (Starch gelatinization).Lupain Ng TaglamigReaction Paper Ric Michael P. De Vera IV- Rizal Mr. Norie Sabayan I. A and B Arabic mathss forgotten brilliance? Indian mathsreached Baghdad, a major(ip) earlier center of Islam, about ad 800. Supported by the ruling caliphs and wealthy individuals, translators in Baghdad produced Arabic versions of Hellenic and Indian mathematical works. The hire for variants was stimulated by mathematical research in the Muslim world. Moslem maths also served religion in that it proved useful in dividing inheritances fit in to Moslem law in predicting the time of the new moon, when the abutting month began and in determining the direction to Mecca for the orientation of mosques and of daily prayers, which were delivered facing Mecca. Recent research paints a new picture of the debt that we owe to Arabic/ Moslem mathematics.Certainly many of the motifs which were previously thought to have been brilliant new conceptions d ue to European mathematicians of the one-sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are now ben to have been developed by Arabic/Islamic mathematicians around four centuries earlier. In many reckon the mathematics studied today is far closer in style to that of the Arabic/Islamic ploughshare than to that of the Greeks.There is a widely held view that, subsequently a brilliant period for mathematics when the Greeks laid the foundations for new-fangled mathematics, there was a period of stagnation before the Europeans took over where the Greeks left off at the beginning of the sixteenth century. The common perception of the period of grand piano years or so between the ancient Greeks and the European Renaissance is that little happened in the world of mathematics except that some Arabic translations of Greek texts were made which keep the Greek learning so that it was available to the Europeans at the beginning of the sixteenth century.That such views should be generally held is of no surprise. Many spark advance historians of mathematics have contributed to the perception by either omitting any mention of Arabic/Islamic mathematics in the historical development of the subject or with statements such as that made by Duhem in - Arabic science only reproduced the teachings real from Greek science. Before we proceed it is worth trying to go down the period that this article covers and authorise an overall description to cover the mathematicians who contributed.The period we cover is liberal to describe it stretches from the end of the eighth century to about the nerve of the fifteenth century. Giving a description to cover the mathematicians who contributed, however, is overmuch harder. The works and are on Islamic mathematics, similar to which uses the title the Muslim contribution to mathematics. Other authors try the description Arabic mathematics. However, certainly not all the mathematicians we wish to include were Muslims some were Jews, some Christians, some of other faiths.Nor were all these mathematicians Arabs, but for convenience we will call our topic Arab mathematics. We should emphasize that the translations into Arabic at this time were made by scientists and mathematicians such as those named above, not by language experts ignorant of mathematics, and the need for the translations was stimulated by the most march on research of the time. It is authoritative to realize that the translating was not done for its own sake, but was done as part of the current research effort.Of Euclids works, the Elements, the Data, the Optics, the Phaenomena, and On Divisions were translated. Of Archimedes works only two Sphere and Cylinder and Measurement of the Circle are known to have been translated, but these were sufficient to stimulate independent researches from the 9th to the 15th century. On the other hand, virtually all of Apolloniuss works were translated, and of Diophantus and Menelaus one book each, the Arithm etica and the Sphaerica, respectively, were translated into Arabic.Finally, the translation of Ptolemys Almagest furnished important astronomical material. Diocles treatise on mirrors, Theodosiuss Spherics, Pappuss work on mechanics, Ptolemys Planisphaerium, and Hypsicles treatises on regular polyhedra (the questionable Books XIV and XV of Euclids Elements) Perhaps one of the most satisfying advances made by Arabic mathematics began at this time with the work of al-Khwarizmi, namely the beginnings of algebra. It is important to understand just how significant this new idea was. It was a revolutionary ove a personal manner from the Greek concept of mathematics which was demandly geometry. Algebra was a unifying theory which allowed rational numbers, irrational numbers, nonrepresentationalal magnitudes, etc. , to all is hardened as algebraic objects. It gave mathematics a whole new development path so much broader in concept to that which had existed before, and provided a veh icle for afterwardslife development of the subject. Another important aspect of the introduction of algebraic ideas was that it allowed mathematics to be applied to itself in a way which had not happened before.Al-Khwarizmis successors undertook a arrogant application of arithmetic to algebra, algebra to arithmetic, both to trig, algebra to the Euclidean theory of numbers, algebra to geometry, and geometry to algebra. This was how the creation of polynomial algebra, combinatorial analysis, and mathematical analysis, the numerical solution of equations, the new elementary theory of numbers, and the geometric construction of equations arose. allow us follow the development of algebra for a moment and look at al-Khwarizmis successors.About forty years after al-Khwarizmi is the work of al-Mahani (born 820), who conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as duplicating the cube to problems in algebra. Abu Kamil (born 850) forms an important link in the development of a lgebra between al-Khwarizmi and al-Karaji. Despite not using symbols, but writing powers of x in words, he had begun to understand what we would write in symbols as xn. xm = xm+n. permit us remark that symbols did not appear in Arabic mathematics until much later.Ibn al-Banna and al-Qalasadi used symbols in the 15th century and, although we do not know exactly when their use began, we know that symbols were used at least(prenominal) a century before this. Al-Karaji (born 953) is seen by many as the send-off person to exclusively free algebra from geometrical operations and to replace them with the arithmetical type of operations which are at the core of algebra today. He was first to define the monomials x, x2, x3, and 1/x, 1/x2, 1/x3, and to cause rules for products of any two of these. He started a school of algebra which flourished for several hundreds of years.Al-Samawal, nearly 200 years later, was an important member of al-Karajis school. Al-Samawal (born 1130) was the first to mother the new topic of algebra a precise description when he wrote that it was concerned- with operating on unknowns using all the arithmetical tools, in the same way as the arithmetician operates on the known. Omar Khayyam (born 1048) gave a complete classification of three-dimensional equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections. Khayyam also wrote that he hoped to give a full description of the algebraic solution of boxlike equations in a later work .If the opportunity arises and I can succeed, I shall give all these fourteen forms with all their branches and cases, and how to distinguish whatever is executable or impossible so that a paper, containing elements which are greatly useful in this art will be prepared. Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi (born 1135), although almost exactly the same age as al-Samawal, does not follow the general development that came through al-Karajis school of algebra but rather follows Khayyams application of al gebra to geometry. He wrote a treatise on cubic equations. .. represents an essential contribution to another algebra which aimed to study curves by means of equations, thus inaugurating the beginning of algebraic geometry. Let us give other examples of the development of Arabic mathematics. move to the House of Wisdom in Baghdad in the 9th century, one mathematician who was better there by the Banu Musa brothers was Thabit ibn Qurra (born 836). He made many contributions to mathematics, but let us consider for the moment consider his contributions to number theory.He discovered a good-looking theorem which allowed pairs of social numbers to be found, that is two numbers such that each is the sum of the proper divisors of the other. Al-Baghdadi (born 980) looked at a slight variant of Thabit ibn Qurras theorem, time al-Haytham (born 965) seems to have been the first to attempt to classify all even perfect numbers (numbers equal to the sum of their proper divisors) as those of t he form 2k-1(2k 1) where 2k 1 is prime. Al-Haytham, is also the first person that we know to state Wilsons theorem, namely that if p is prime then 1+ (p-1) is divisible by p.It is unclear whether he knew how to prove this result. It is called Wilsons theorem because of a comment made by Waring in 1770 that John Wilson had notice the result. There is no evidence that John Wilson knew how to prove it and most certainly Waring did not. Lagrange gave the first deduction in 1771 and it should be noticed that it is more than 750 years after al-Haytham before number theory surpasses this achievement of Arabic mathematics. Continuing the story of loveable numbers, from which we have taken a diversion, it is worth noting that they play a large role in Arabic mathematics.Al-Farisi (born 1260) gave a new proof of Thabit ibn Qurras theorem, introducing important new ideas concerning factorisation and combinatorial methods. He also gave the pair of amicable numbers 17296, 18416 which have b een attributed to Euler, but we know that these were known earlier than al-Farisi, perhaps even by Thabit ibn Qurra himself. Although outside our time range for Arabic mathematics in this article, it is worth noting that in the 17th century the Arabic mathematician Mohammed Baqir Yazdi gave the pair of amicable number 9,363,584 and 9,437,056 notwithstanding many years before Eulers contribution.C. Arabian math/ Islamic Mathematics Inthe9thcenturyArab mathematician al-Khwarizmi wrote a systematic introduction to algebra, Kitab al-jabr wal Muqabalah (Book of Restoring and Balancing). The incline word algebra comes from al-jabr in the treatises title. Al-Khwarizmis algebra was founded on Brahmaguptas work, which he duly credited, and showed the influence of Babylonian and Greek mathematics as well. A 12th-century Latin translation of al-Khwarizmis treatise was crucial for the later development of algebra in Europe. Al-Khwarizmis name is the source of the word algorithm.Bytheyear900t heacquisition of past mathematics was complete, and Muslim scholars began to build on what they had acquired. Alhazen, an outstanding Arab scientist of the late 900s and early 1000s, produced algebraic solutions of quadratic and cubic equations. Al-Karaji in the 10th and early 11th century faultless the algebra of polynomials (mathematical expressions that are the sum of a number of terms) of al-Khwarizmi. He include polynomials with an infinite number of terms. Laterscholars,including 12th-century Persian mathematician Omar Khayyam, illuminated certain cubic equations geometrically by using conic sections.Arab astronomers contributed the tangent and cotangent to trigonometry. Geometers such as Ibrahim ibn Sinan in the 10th century continued Archimedess investigations of areas and volumes, and Kamal al-Din and others applied the theory of conic sections to solve problems in optics. Astronomer Nasir al-Din al-Tusi created the mathematical disciplines of plane and spherical trigonom etry in the 13th century and was the first to treat trigonometry separately from astronomy. Finally, a number of Muslim mathematicians made important discoveries in the theory of numbers, while others explained a ariety of numerical methods for solving equations. ManyoftheancientGreek works on mathematics were preserved during the middle Ages through Arabic translations and commentaries. Europe acquired much of this learning during the 12th century, when Greek and Arabic works were translated into Latin, then the written language of educated Europeans. These Arabic works, together with the Greek classics, were responsible for the growth of mathematics in the West during the late middle Ages. Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation.All rights reserved. D. Origin of the Word Algebra The word algebra is a Latin variant of the Arabic word al-jabr. This came from the title of a book, Hidab al-jabr wal-muqubala, written in Baghdad about 825 A. D. by the Arab mathematici an Mohammed ibn-Musa al-Khowarizmi. The words jabr (JAH-ber) and muqubalah (moo-KAH-ba-lah) were used by al-Khowarizmi to intend two basic operations in solving equations. Jabr was to exchange subtracted terms to the other side of the equation. Muqubalah was to cancel like terms on opposite sides of the equation.In fact, the title has been translated to mean science of restoration (or reunion) and opposition or science of transposition and cancellation and The Book of Completion and Cancellation or The Book of Restoration and Balancing. Jabr is used in the step where x 2 = 12 becomes x = 14. The left-side of the first equation, where x is lessened by 2, is restored or completed back to x in the second equation. Muqabalah takes us from x + y = y + 7 to x = 7 by cancelling or balancing the two sides of the equation.Eventually the muqabalah was left behind, and this type of math became known as algebra in many languages. It is interesting to contrast that the word al-jabr used non -mathematically made its way into Europe through the Moors of Spain. There an algebrista is a bonesetter, or restorer of bones. A barber of medieval times called himself an algebrista since barbers a good deal did bone-setting and bloodletting on the side. Hence the red and white striped barber poles of today. II. Insights The Arabian contributions to Mathematics are much used around the world.Their Mathematics shows a perfect way to represent numbers and problems, in a way to make it clearer and easier to understand. They have discovered many things about mathematics and formulated many formulas that are widely used today. I learned from this research that Arabs mathematics started when Indian mathematics reached Baghdad and translated it into Arabic. They improved and studied Mathematics and formulated many things. They become more famous when they discovered Algebra and improved it.Many Arabian mathematicians became famous because of their contributions on Mathematics. Many anci ent Greeks works on mathematics were preserved through Arabic translations and commentaries. I am enlightened about the origin of what are we canvas now in Mathematics. Now I know that volume of our lessons in mathematics came from Arabians not from Greeks. I also learned that many mathematicians contributed on different branches and techniques on mathematics and it take so much time for them to explore and improve mathematics.Lupain Ng TaglamigReaction Paper Ric Michael P. De Vera IV- Rizal Mr. Norie Sabayan I. A and B Arabic mathematics forgotten brilliance? Indianmathematicsreached Baghdad, a major early center of Islam, about ad 800. Supported by the ruling caliphs and wealthy individuals, translators in Baghdad produced Arabic versions of Greek and Indian mathematical works. The need for translations was stimulated by mathematical research in the Islamic world.Islamic mathematics also served religion in that it proved useful in dividing inheritances according to Islamic law i n predicting the time of the new moon, when the next month began and in determining the direction to Mecca for the orientation of mosques and of daily prayers, which were delivered facing Mecca. Recent research paints a new picture of the debt that we owe to Arabic/Islamic mathematics.Certainly many of the ideas which were previously thought to have been brilliant new conceptions due to European mathematicians of the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are now known to have been developed by Arabic/Islamic mathematicians around four centuries earlier. In many respects the mathematics studied today is far closer in style to that of the Arabic/Islamic contribution than to that of the Greeks.There is a widely held view that, after a brilliant period for mathematics when the Greeks laid the foundations for modern mathematics, there was a period of stagnation before the Europeans took over where the Greeks left off at the beginning of the sixteenth century. The common percept ion of the period of 1000 years or so between the ancient Greeks and the European Renaissance is that little happened in the world of mathematics except that some Arabic translations of Greek texts were made which preserved the Greek learning so that it was available to the Europeans at the beginning of the sixteenth century.That such views should be generally held is of no surprise. Many leading historians of mathematics have contributed to the perception by either omitting any mention of Arabic/Islamic mathematics in the historical development of the subject or with statements such as that made by Duhem in - Arabic science only reproduced the teachings received from Greek science. Before we proceed it is worth trying to define the period that this article covers and give an overall description to cover the mathematicians who contributed.The period we cover is easy to describe it stretches from the end of the eighth century to about the middle of the fifteenth century. Giving a de scription to cover the mathematicians who contributed, however, is much harder. The works and are on Islamic mathematics, similar to which uses the title the Muslim contribution to mathematics. Other authors try the description Arabic mathematics. However, certainly not all the mathematicians we wish to include were Muslims some were Jews, some Christians, some of other faiths.Nor were all these mathematicians Arabs, but for convenience we will call our topic Arab mathematics. We should emphasize that the translations into Arabic at this time were made by scientists and mathematicians such as those named above, not by language experts ignorant of mathematics, and the need for the translations was stimulated by the most advanced research of the time. It is important to realize that the translating was not done for its own sake, but was done as part of the current research effort.Of Euclids works, the Elements, the Data, the Optics, the Phaenomena, and On Divisions were translated. Of Archimedes works only two Sphere and Cylinder and Measurement of the Circle are known to have been translated, but these were sufficient to stimulate independent researches from the 9th to the 15th century. On the other hand, virtually all of Apolloniuss works were translated, and of Diophantus and Menelaus one book each, the Arithmetica and the Sphaerica, respectively, were translated into Arabic.Finally, the translation of Ptolemys Almagest furnished important astronomical material. Diocles treatise on mirrors, Theodosiuss Spherics, Pappuss work on mechanics, Ptolemys Planisphaerium, and Hypsicles treatises on regular polyhedra (the so-called Books XIV and XV of Euclids Elements) Perhaps one of the most significant advances made by Arabic mathematics began at this time with the work of al-Khwarizmi, namely the beginnings of algebra. It is important to understand just how significant this new idea was. It was a revolutionary ove away from the Greek concept of mathematics which was essentially geometry. Algebra was a unifying theory which allowed rational numbers, irrational numbers, geometrical magnitudes, etc. , to all is treated as algebraic objects. It gave mathematics a whole new development path so much broader in concept to that which had existed before, and provided a vehicle for future development of the subject. Another important aspect of the introduction of algebraic ideas was that it allowed mathematics to be applied to itself in a way which had not happened before.Al-Khwarizmis successors undertook a systematic application of arithmetic to algebra, algebra to arithmetic, both to trigonometry, algebra to the Euclidean theory of numbers, algebra to geometry, and geometry to algebra. This was how the creation of polynomial algebra, combinatorial analysis, and numerical analysis, the numerical solution of equations, the new elementary theory of numbers, and the geometric construction of equations arose. Let us follow the development of algebra f or a moment and look at al-Khwarizmis successors.About forty years after al-Khwarizmi is the work of al-Mahani (born 820), who conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as duplicating the cube to problems in algebra. Abu Kamil (born 850) forms an important link in the development of algebra between al-Khwarizmi and al-Karaji. Despite not using symbols, but writing powers of x in words, he had begun to understand what we would write in symbols as xn. xm = xm+n. Let us remark that symbols did not appear in Arabic mathematics until much later.Ibn al-Banna and al-Qalasadi used symbols in the 15th century and, although we do not know exactly when their use began, we know that symbols were used at least a century before this. Al-Karaji (born 953) is seen by many as the first person to completely free algebra from geometrical operations and to replace them with the arithmetical type of operations which are at the core of algebra today. He was first to define the monomials x, x2, x3, and 1/x, 1/x2, 1/x3, and to give rules for products of any two of these. He started a school of algebra which flourished for several hundreds of years.Al-Samawal, nearly 200 years later, was an important member of al-Karajis school. Al-Samawal (born 1130) was the first to give the new topic of algebra a precise description when he wrote that it was concerned- with operating on unknowns using all the arithmetical tools, in the same way as the arithmetician operates on the known. Omar Khayyam (born 1048) gave a complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections. Khayyam also wrote that he hoped to give a full description of the algebraic solution of cubic equations in a later work .If the opportunity arises and I can succeed, I shall give all these fourteen forms with all their branches and cases, and how to distinguish whatever is possible or impossible so that a paper, containing elements which are greatly us eful in this art will be prepared. Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi (born 1135), although almost exactly the same age as al-Samawal, does not follow the general development that came through al-Karajis school of algebra but rather follows Khayyams application of algebra to geometry. He wrote a treatise on cubic equations. .. represents an essential contribution to another algebra which aimed to study curves by means of equations, thus inaugurating the beginning of algebraic geometry. Let us give other examples of the development of Arabic mathematics. Returning to the House of Wisdom in Baghdad in the 9th century, one mathematician who was educated there by the Banu Musa brothers was Thabit ibn Qurra (born 836). He made many contributions to mathematics, but let us consider for the moment consider his contributions to number theory.He discovered a beautiful theorem which allowed pairs of amicable numbers to be found, that is two numbers such that each is the sum of the proper divisors of the o ther. Al-Baghdadi (born 980) looked at a slight variant of Thabit ibn Qurras theorem, while al-Haytham (born 965) seems to have been the first to attempt to classify all even perfect numbers (numbers equal to the sum of their proper divisors) as those of the form 2k-1(2k 1) where 2k 1 is prime. Al-Haytham, is also the first person that we know to state Wilsons theorem, namely that if p is prime then 1+ (p-1) is divisible by p.It is unclear whether he knew how to prove this result. It is called Wilsons theorem because of a comment made by Waring in 1770 that John Wilson had noticed the result. There is no evidence that John Wilson knew how to prove it and most certainly Waring did not. Lagrange gave the first proof in 1771 and it should be noticed that it is more than 750 years after al-Haytham before number theory surpasses this achievement of Arabic mathematics. Continuing the story of amicable numbers, from which we have taken a diversion, it is worth noting that they play a lar ge role in Arabic mathematics.Al-Farisi (born 1260) gave a new proof of Thabit ibn Qurras theorem, introducing important new ideas concerning factorisation and combinatorial methods. He also gave the pair of amicable numbers 17296, 18416 which have been attributed to Euler, but we know that these were known earlier than al-Farisi, perhaps even by Thabit ibn Qurra himself. Although outside our time range for Arabic mathematics in this article, it is worth noting that in the 17th century the Arabic mathematician Mohammed Baqir Yazdi gave the pair of amicable number 9,363,584 and 9,437,056 still many years before Eulers contribution.C. Arabian Mathematics/ Islamic Mathematics Inthe9thcenturyArab mathematician al-Khwarizmi wrote a systematic introduction to algebra, Kitab al-jabr wal Muqabalah (Book of Restoring and Balancing). The English word algebra comes from al-jabr in the treatises title. Al-Khwarizmis algebra was founded on Brahmaguptas work, which he duly credited, and showed th e influence of Babylonian and Greek mathematics as well. A 12th-century Latin translation of al-Khwarizmis treatise was crucial for the later development of algebra in Europe. Al-Khwarizmis name is the source of the word algorithm.Bytheyear900theacquisition of past mathematics was complete, and Muslim scholars began to build on what they had acquired. Alhazen, an outstanding Arab scientist of the late 900s and early 1000s, produced algebraic solutions of quadratic and cubic equations. Al-Karaji in the 10th and early 11th century completed the algebra of polynomials (mathematical expressions that are the sum of a number of terms) of al-Khwarizmi. He included polynomials with an infinite number of terms. Laterscholars,including 12th-century Persian mathematician Omar Khayyam, solved certain cubic equations geometrically by using conic sections.Arab astronomers contributed the tangent and cotangent to trigonometry. Geometers such as Ibrahim ibn Sinan in the 10th century continued Archi medess investigations of areas and volumes, and Kamal al-Din and others applied the theory of conic sections to solve problems in optics. Astronomer Nasir al-Din al-Tusi created the mathematical disciplines of plane and spherical trigonometry in the 13th century and was the first to treat trigonometry separately from astronomy. Finally, a number of Muslim mathematicians made important discoveries in the theory of numbers, while others explained a ariety of numerical methods for solving equations. ManyoftheancientGreek works on mathematics were preserved during the middle Ages through Arabic translations and commentaries. Europe acquired much of this learning during the 12th century, when Greek and Arabic works were translated into Latin, then the written language of educated Europeans. These Arabic works, together with the Greek classics, were responsible for the growth of mathematics in the West during the late middle Ages. Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation .All rights reserved. D. Origin of the Word Algebra The word algebra is a Latin variant of the Arabic word al-jabr. This came from the title of a book, Hidab al-jabr wal-muqubala, written in Baghdad about 825 A. D. by the Arab mathematician Mohammed ibn-Musa al-Khowarizmi. The words jabr (JAH-ber) and muqubalah (moo-KAH-ba-lah) were used by al-Khowarizmi to designate two basic operations in solving equations. Jabr was to transpose subtracted terms to the other side of the equation. Muqubalah was to cancel like terms on opposite sides of the equation.In fact, the title has been translated to mean science of restoration (or reunion) and opposition or science of transposition and cancellation and The Book of Completion and Cancellation or The Book of Restoration and Balancing. Jabr is used in the step where x 2 = 12 becomes x = 14. The left-side of the first equation, where x is lessened by 2, is restored or completed back to x in the second equation. Muqabalah takes us from x + y = y + 7 to x = 7 by cancelling or balancing the two sides of the equation.Eventually the muqabalah was left behind, and this type of math became known as algebra in many languages. It is interesting to note that the word al-jabr used non-mathematically made its way into Europe through the Moors of Spain. There an algebrista is a bonesetter, or restorer of bones. A barber of medieval times called himself an algebrista since barbers often did bone-setting and bloodletting on the side. Hence the red and white striped barber poles of today. II. Insights The Arabian contributions to Mathematics are much used around the world.Their Mathematics shows a perfect way to represent numbers and problems, in a way to make it clearer and easier to understand. They have discovered many things about mathematics and formulated many formulas that are widely used today. I learned from this research that Arabs mathematics started when Indian mathematics reached Baghdad and translated it into Arabic. They improved and studied Mathematics and formulated many things. They become more famous when they discovered Algebra and improved it.Many Arabian mathematicians became famous because of their contributions on Mathematics. Many ancient Greeks works on mathematics were preserved through Arabic translations and commentaries. I am enlightened about the origin of what are we studying now in Mathematics. Now I know that majority of our lessons in mathematics came from Arabians not from Greeks. I also learned that many mathematicians contributed on different branches and techniques on mathematics and it take so much time for them to explore and improve mathematics.

Monopoly, Perfect Competition, Imperfect Competition

NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS CURRICULUM SUPPORT Economics Microeconomics The Theories of the Firm ADVANCED HIGHER Ac companionshipments This document is proved by L sop uping and article of faith Scotland as part of the National Qualifications support programme for Economics. First published 2002 Electronic version 2002 L forming and T for each oneing Scotland 2002 This publication may be re contractd in whole or in part for educational activityal purposes by educational establishments in Scotland provided that no improvement accrues at e actually stage. ISBN 1 85955 929 8 limit Introduction1Section 1The theory of complete competition3 Section 2The theory of monopoly9 Section 3The theory of monopolizeric competition and oligopoly13 Section 4Resource parcelling/externalities19 Section 5Suggested solutions23 INTRODUCTION in that respect atomic number 18 basically two types of merchandise situation (a)perfective aspect competition in this commercialise, potents con quick no i nfluence they ar terms takers. (b)Imperfect competition this market includes monopoly, oligopoly and monopolizeric competition firms atomic number 18 equipment casualty doctorrs and shtup influence the market place. Every firm mustiness obey lead rules in night club to survive To maximise lettuce, firms pass on create at that go forthput where MC=MR and at the selfsame(prenominal) time MC must be rising. A firm testament continue to produce in the short- falsify stretch as long as it pot cover its variable be. In the long be withstand a firm must cover its total cost. SECTION 1 In order to build a model against which we set up compare new(prenominal) market situations, current characteristics have to be assumed There are a hand close to number of buyers and sellers in the market. Buyers and sellers have perfect knowledge of goods and prices in the market. All firms produce a homogeneous product. Products are identical. There is exemption of conk out and ent ry to the industry. There is perfect mobility of the factors of occupation. In the material world it is almost impossible for all of these conditions to exist at the same time. Foreign exchange and agriculture are markets that have some of the to a graduate(prenominal) place characteristics up-to-dateness is a homogeneous product and in agriculture there are a large number of farmers come outing the market without influencing the price. Can you identify other types of markets that are almost abruptly competitive? The shoot slip No one firm keister alter output enough to influence price. and so each firm faces a perfectly elastic demand wind up.Each firm sells at a given(p) market price and this price coincides with the firms AR and MR. The firm can sell as much as it wants at this price, however if it orientd in a higher place this price, demand would declension to zero. pic The come out stoop The short run supply curve of the firm in perfect competition provide be that part of its bare(a) cost curve that lies above its average variable cost curve. MC is the lowest price at which a firm would sell an extra unit, and when we remember the second rule above that the firm must obey to maximise profit, we have correctly identified the firms short run supply curve. pic The equilibrium of the firm The firm is in equilibrium when MR=MC. This is where salary are maximised or losses minimised. For the perfectly competitive firm the only decision to be made is how much to produce to maximise profits. Firms can non influence price beca map their output is a very small part of market output. Equilibrium of the Firm Perfect Competition pic Short run In the short run, firms earning super ruler profits will attract other firms into the market looking for higher than shape rewards. Remember that normal profit is reasonable enough to keep the entrepreneur in business.Perfect Competition Short Run pic dogged run In the long run, as new firms enter the industry, established firms will expand their output to get more of the supernormal profits. Eventually, all firms earn normal profits as the supernormal profits are competed out. Long run equilibrium of the firm We saw how supernormal profits attracted new firms into the industry. After a time, the existence of subnormal profits would cause firms to leave the industry. hand over would fall and prices rise. Hence long run equilibrium is one of normal profits only. Perfect Competition Long Run pic Advantages of perfect competition Because firms produce where MC=MR=Price, allocative efficiency is achieved. Productive efficiency is also achieved because the firm produces at the lowest omen of the AC curve. Prices are lower because of increased competition. Because of perfect knowledge firms must keep up to date and innovate or they will be forced to leave the industry. In the long run all firms will earn normal profits. Cartels and other confining agreements cannot emerge to exp loit consumers. Perfect competition can be used as a model in economic analysis.Disadvantages of perfect competition Firms have little time to take in from inventions because they quickly enter the public domain. Since firms make only normal profits they take outice not have the funds to undertake expensive research that often yields the most outstanding discoveries. Firms might not benefit from economies of large-scale performance. In order to retard abuse of the consumer, some industries are best run by the state as innate(p) monopolies and so perfect competition would be inappropriate. Perfect competition is a goal that cannot be reached in the real world.Student exercises/activities 1. To what extent does agriculture approximate to being a perfect market? (10 marks) 2. Study the diagram below and answer the interest questions pic (a) wherefore does the short run supply curve of the firm begin at S1? (2 marks) (b)At S2 the firm breaks even. Explain what this means. (2 ma rks) (c)At S2 the firm also earns normal profits. Explain wherefore they are sometimes called the entrepreneurs transfer earnings or the opportunity cost of capital. (2 marks) (d)Is normal profit the same for each entrepreneur?Justify your answer. (2 marks) (e)Economic profits and losses are signals to owners of factors of production. Explain why this statement holds true only in the short run in a perfectly competitive market. (4 marks) (f)If the long run supply curve of a perfectly competitive firm is a horizontal line, what assumption can we make about the firms costs? 3. Read through the notes on perfect competition and write down each new economic landmark you have encountered (perhaps terms much(prenominal) as normal profits, economic profits, transfer earnings).Then make precise definitions of these terms from an economics dictionary or textbook. Section 2 A monopoly market structure is assumed to have the following characteristics In theory the monopolist is the only fir m in the industry. However, under UK law any firm controlling more than a 25% share of the market is liable for investigation as a monopoly. The monopolist is a price maker. The monopolist is shielded from competition because barriers to entry prevent new firms from entering the market. Barriers to entry To exist, monopolies must have high barriers to entry. The main barriers are presidential term restrictions like a licence, permit or certificate to enter an industry patents that make it illegal for others to use an inventors ideas for a number of years ownership of factors of production that do not have close substitutes difficulty in raising the necessary capital economies of scale particularly in the case of a natural monopoly. Monopoly equilibrium The monopolist can stop new firms entering the industry through technical or statutory barriers. If the monopolist is making supernormal profits in the short run, they are likely to continue into the long run.Note that the monopolist will not al personal manners make supernormal profits, as they will aim on the relationship between consumer demand and production costs. Monopolistic Competition Short Run pic Pay particular attention to the following points illustrated above There is no supply curve in monopoly. Supply and demand are dependent on one another. There is no specialisation between short run and long run because of the barriers to entry. Profit maximising output is OQ where MC=MR. The price charged in the market is OP and is determined by the demand curve. paranormal profits are shown by the rectangle PXYZ enclosed by AR and AC.Price is OP and cost is OZ. MR falls at twice the rate of AR and becomes zero when total tax income is maximised. Advantages An industry with a flat-bottomed average cost curve benefits from economies of scale. This type of industry requires a large amount of capital equipment. Examples include the car and chemical industries. Hence the public benefits if the LRAC remains constant as output expands because more cars or chemicals are produced at cheap prices. If a monopolist invests in research and development the public can benefit from product development. Disadvantages Monopoly can lead to majusculeer inequality in the dispersion of income because the monopolist charges a price higher than MC. Again because the monopolist charges above MC it is allocatively inefficient. Underproduction of the product occurs and not enough of the nations resources are allocated to its production. Price discrimination The monopolist can distract in two different ways It can discriminate between units sold to the same buyer as in the case of gas or electricity. It can discriminate between different buyers, for example when it charges children and OAPs rates different to that for adults.The monopolist charges consumers different prices in separate markets and, because the costs of production are the same in each market, it is able to increase its profits. pic Profi t is maximised where MR=MC. In Market A, the demand is less elastic compared to Market B that has a more elastic demand. When the monopolist splits the market and charges a different price in each, it will earn more profits than if it charged one uniform price to all. The monopolist can discriminate in a number of ways It can charge a different price at different times of the emplacementreal day (like a gas company) or at different times of the week (like a rail company). It can charge different rates to different income groups. Students, the discharged and OAPs can often get into a football match or a race meeting at a reduced rate. It can charge different prices in different parts of the country. The same house built by a national builder will cost more in the south-east of England than it will in the north-east of England. What enables a monopolist to discriminate effectively? Different buyers in the market must have different elasticities of demand. The market must be able to be sub-divided into separate divisions according to time, place or income. The monopolist must be able to keep markets separate without great difficulty. Points to note about monopoly A monopolist will only produce where the demand curve is elastic. MR has to be positive for MC and MR to be equal. The only distinction between short run and long run is in the changes in cost structure of the industry. Barriers to entry prevent us from making the amiable of distinctions we can make between short and long run equilibrium in perfect competition. There is no supply curve in monopoly because there is no linear relationship between demand and supply.Student exercises/activities 1. Explain why, for the monopolist, price is unendingly greater than MR. (2 marks) 2. What does the price elasticity of demand facing the monopolist depend upon? (3 marks) 3. be monopolies always profitable? Justify your answer. (3 marks) 4. State the three conditions that must exist for a monopolist to be able to price discriminate. (3 marks) 5. Draw two diagrams, side by side, to show long run equilibrium under perfect competition and under monopoly equilibrium. Study the diagrams and answer the questions that follow (a)Prove that the monopolist wastes resources. 2 marks) (b)State why the perfectly competitive firm is allocatively efficient. (2 marks) (c)Explain why the perfectly competitive firm is productively efficient. (d)Describe how profit is shown in the monopolists diagram and explain what kind of profit it is. (4 marks) (e)The perfectly competitive firm appears to be making no profit. Is this true? Explain your answer. (3 marks) (f)At what output do both maximise their profits? (1 mark) (g)Identify the supply curve for the perfectly competitive firm and explain why there is no supply curve for the monopolist. 4 marks) (h)Explain how establishment decides whether or not a monopoly should be allowed to continue. (2 marks) (i)Suggest an act government can take to regulate a monop oly and explain how it might be expected to work. (3 marks) 6. Make definitions of the new terms you have encountered. SECTION 3 Perfect competition and monopoly are two extreme theories of the firm. Remember that preceding we classified all theories other than perfect competition as imperfect. Hence monopoly, oligopoly and monopolistic competition can be described as imperfect competition.Some textbooks describe all theories that exist between the two extremes as imperfect. This mixture is also accepted by examiners. What distinguishes oligopoly from monopolistic competition is the number of firms in the industry. An oligopoly has few sellers, whereas in monopolistic competition there are a large number of sellers. Monopolistic competition The theory of monopolistic competition assumes the following characteristics There is free entry and exit in the industry. The industry is made up of a large number of buyers and sellers. Firms produce severalized goods. Each firm faces a down ward-sloping demand curve because products are not homogeneous. Firms maximise profits in the short run. There is perfect knowledge in the market. Because firms produce slightly different products under different brand names, each firm has a accredited amount of market power. Hence a price rise will not result in it losing all its customers. However, because there are a large number of firms producing acceptable substitutes, market power is weak. The more differentiated the product, the greater the market power and so the less elastic the demand curve will be.Equilibrium for a monopolistically competitive firm Short RunLong Run Monopolistic Competition Short RunMonopolistic Competition Long Run pic In the short run monopolistic competitors earn supernormal profits and will attract new firms into the industry. As in perfect competition these profits will be competed away until in the long run all firms are earning normal profits. The rectangle PXYZ will gradually disappear as each firms share of demand falls and its demand curve moves to the left. In the long run the demand curve is a tangent to AC but, unlike perfect competition, it is at a point where AC is falling.How much supernormal profit a firm earns in the short run will depend on its ability to differentiate products by using brand names and advertising. Look how important to consumers designer labels and certain brand names are today Note that in both diagrams price is greater than MC and so the firm is allocatively inefficient. Again the firm in each diagram does not produce at the lowest point on the AC curve making it productively inefficient. The firm has excess capacity. In the long run two rules hold AC=AR because freedom of entry ensures that a firm cannot earn supernormal profit MC=MR because the firm wants to maximise profit.Oligopoly Oligopoly is often described as competition among the few. A few interdependent suppliers control most industries in our country and so these industries are imperfectly competitive and oligopolistic. What causes an industry that started as competitive to develop in this way? The main reason is to take advantage of economies of scale and in industries like the car industry this has been made possible through technical progress. Barriers to entry and mergers have also played their part in the formation of oligopolies. Oligopoly is difficult to analyse because one firms behaviour can cause retaliation from another.Firms continually have to devise strategies to keep them ahead of their competitors. Oligopoly has the following assumed characteristics A small number of suppliers control most of the market. Barriers to entry are likely to exist, although in some industries they can be low. Firms are interdependent, unlike in perfect competition where firms ignore changes in the behaviour of their competitors. Prices are controlled by the supplier not the consumer. A kinked demand curve for the firm is likely to exist, although the demand curve for the industry is normal. The majority of oligopolistic markets head for the hills to have collusion in some form, although restrictive trade practices have been illegal since 1956 non-price competition in the form of branding, advertising, free offers and after sales services price rigidity prices often remain somewhat constant despite changes in costs of production, unlike in perfect competition where prices continually fluctuate to monitor such changes average cost curves tend to be flat-bottomed allowing the firm to take advantage of economies of scale. Oligopoly the kinked demand curve pic The kinked demand curve helps to explain price rigidity that tends to occur under oligopoly.The oppose firms tend to agree a market price at X. Demand is elastic above this point and so any rise in price will cause a fall in revenue as consumers buy rival products. Below X demand is inelastic and a fall in price will cause a fall in revenue and a price war would break out. Hence firms will use non-price competition to maintain or increase their market share. Examples of this include free gifts or coupons when petrol is purchased. This model of oligopoly has its critics. It implies knowledge of MC and MR that firms just do not have. The model does not explain how price was determined or what happens when price is eventually changed.Other firms could react in a number of ways to a change in the price of a competitors product not just in the one way that this model assumes. However, it does help to explain why price rigidity occurs and why firms use non-price strategies to maintain market share. Collusion The kinked demand curve model assumes that competitors would react in a particular way. but they could, of course, react in other ways. This uncertainty is a characteristic of oligopoly and it arises because firms in the industry are interdependent. Interdependence means that the oligopolists are always unsure how competitors will react to any action they take.One firms actions have consequences for all. Consequently entrepreneurs try to reduce risks by colluding. Collusion takes place in a agreement for example, OPEC can fix the price or quantity of oil to be offered for sale. Remember such actions are illegal in the UK. The purpose of the cartel is to earn supernormal profits. Price attractorship Often in an oligopolistic market one firm will make the first move to change price, usually because costs have risen and profits are falling. Competitors may be in the same position and so are willing to accept the change.This price leader is often the largest firm in the industry and so smaller firms do not challenge its actions. This almost simultaneous change in price is called tally pricing and of course it makes the kinked demand curve irrelevant. Student exercises/activities 1. Construct a table to compare the foursome market structures we have studied using the following headings Market structure, Number of sellers, Restricted entry an d exit, Long run supernormal profits and product differentiation. Place these headings horizontally and the four market structures vertically. 2.Suggest reasons why some firms tend towards oligopoly while others tend towards monopolistic competition. (4 marks) 3. Explain why some firms use different methods of non-price competition to increase their market share. (3 marks) 4. Profit maximisation always occurs where marginal revenue is equal to marginal cost. Why is this so? (2 marks) 5. Behaviour in three of the markets we have studied is predictable. Explain why this is so. (4 marks) 6. Using diagrams secernate price and output determination in perfect competition and monopolistic competition in both the short run and the long run. 7.Is price leadership a form of collusion? Discuss. (4 marks) 8. Make definitions of new economic terms. SECTION 4 We have seen how resources are allocated by prices determined by the forces of demand and supply in the market place. We have also seen t hat some market structures are more efficient than others when it comes to resource allocation. Allocative efficiency is present if the marginal cost of production equals price in all industries. If Price=MC in all industries in an economy, it would be impossible to make any one better off without making another worse off. This allocation of resources is said to be Pareto efficient.Again allocative efficiency exists when an economy uses its resources to produce the goods and services consumers want. Hence one of the main macroeconomic aims of government is to achieve the optimal allocation of resources and that is when resources are efficiently used in such a way as to maximise the welfare of consumers. We saw earlier that only the perfectly competitive market is both productively and allocatively efficient. No real economy is like this. Imperfections exist in all real economies and they prevent the efficient allocation of resources through the market mechanism.Instead an under-or o ver-allocation of resources to a certain economic occupation takes place. Market failure results. There are four main types of market failure 1. Externalities. They exist when the action of producers and consumers, other than through the normal workings of the price mechanism, affect not only themselves but also third parties. They can be negative like pollution and congestion. Each is a cost to society. Externalities can be positive, like the benefits society gains from better education and improved medical practice.Negative externalities result in over-production positive externalities result in under-production. Sometimes prices and profits are not good indicators of the real cost to society of an economic activity and so externalities emerge. Hence alternative systems of allocation need to be considered to obtain a more desired allocation of resources. 2. Imperfect competition. In imperfect markets consumers are often at the mercy of oligopolies and monopolies. Governments and trade unions can also influence demand and supply in a market and this leads to inefficiency.It also leads to an unequal distribution of income and wealth. Imperfect markets fail to be efficient and equitable. 3. Market forces cannot provide public goods and often do not do a good job of providing certain merit goods. Again the market has failed to produce what every society needs. 4. Market economies tend to experience sudden business fluctuations. The UK went into recession in 19902. Japan has tranquil not recovered from a current recession. Governments are trying to devise tighter monetary policies to avoid the worst extremes of trade cycles.Whenever market failure occurs there has been a re-allocation of resources to some less desired point on the Production Possibility Curve. Consequently government steps in to try to redress the balance. Monopoly and government hitch A government can control a monopoly by using price controls. Look at depict 1. A price control lowers the pr ice to the consumer from P1 to P2 and at the same time increases output from OQ1 to OQ2. Society now benefits from an improvement in allocative efficiency. Figure 1 pic A government can impose fines or regulations to correct externality situations.However, a major difficulty that immediately arises before this can be done is to calculate or estimate the value of externalities such as pollution and congestion. Look at Figure 2. If the polluter ignores the pollution then he will produce at Q2 where demand equals supply. However, if the government insists that certain regulations must be complied with, such as installing filters, the supply curve will move to the left because costs have risen. The quantity being produced will now contract to Q1. Consumers are now paying a price that reflects the spill-over cost and over-production has been corrected.There has been an improvement in resource allocation because the government has interpreted action against market failure. Figure 2 pic Ma rkets can sometimes under-produce as in the case of medical or educational provision. Look at Figure 3. Without grants and subsidies Q1 places would be provided. With grants to students and subsidies to universities and colleges more places can be offered, and many students who have the necessary qualifications can now afford to take up a place. Q2 places are now addressable and society will eventually benefit from the increased number of educated people.Again government has taken action to correct market failure. Thus we have seen that externalities can be positive or negative and they accrue to a third party. We saw in the case of the chemical firm that negative externalities arose because the firm was relate only with marginal private costs and ignored marginal social costs. Hence they could produce at a higher output and so render more pollution and possibly congestion. Market failure occurred and the government intervened to force the firm to address the social cost it cause d. In our example the government legitimately restricted the activity.It could have forced the firm to internalise the spillover or it could have taken over the firm. Again firms consider only marginal private benefit, the benefit that the firm receives. They ignore the spillover benefit that society gains from consuming this good or service, the marginal social benefit. It gave grants and subsidies. It could have given tax incentives or even taken over the service and provided it free. Consequently government steps in to increase this under-production and remove the welfare loss that results from free market equilibrium. See Figure 3. Figure 3 picStudent exercises/activities 1. Explain how the actions of large corporations and trade unions can influence demand and lead to non-optimal allocation of resources. (3 marks) 2. Examine the case for providing a) public goods, and b) merit goods free to the consumer. (6 marks) 3. Why might some economists wall against providing products f ree to the consumer? (3 marks) 4. Why does free market equilibrium not always represent the true cost of production? (3marks) 5. At what point is the optimum level of production of a public good reached? (2 marks) 6. Make definitions of new economic terms.SECTION 5 Guideline answers (Perfect competition) 1. There are four basic assumptions underpinning the theory of perfect competition. Do they hold for the agriculture industry? In the UK there are a large number of farmers supplying the market. No farm is large enough to influence price, so this characteristic holds. Farms are relatively easy to buy, especially today because of falling profit margins. Hence exit and entry in the industry are unrestricted. Knowledge of prices and market conditions are good because of constant updating by the farming press using raw technology.Hence knowledge is as perfect as it can be. Products are fairly homogeneous. Bramley apples from one orchard are almost identical to Bramley apples from anoth er, although you could argue that quality/ horizontal surface of products does vary. Hence there is a fairly strong case to support the statement. 2. (a)Because only above S1 is revenue greater than AVC and only then will the firm be able to make some contribution to fixed costs. (b)At this price the firm makes zero short run economic profit. At this point MR=MC=ATC. The break-even price is the one that yields zero short run profit or loss. c)The opportunity cost of keeping capital in the firm is moving it to the abutting best earning alternative. Normal profits are just enough to make it worthwhile to keep the capital in the firm. Consequently it is the amount an entrepreneur would earn in an alternative occupation and so is transfer earnings. (d)No. The amount necessary to keep capital in a firm in one state is not the amount necessary to keep capital in a similar industry in another area. Costs could be different. (e)Economic profits or losses are signals to owners of capital e lsewhere in the economy that they too should enter the industry.If some firms are making losses, this is a signal to entrepreneurs to stay out of the industry. It also signals to existing firms to be cautious about re-investing. However, in the long run in a perfectly competitive market only normal profits can be earned and so no such signals are given. (f)They must be constant. Guideline answers (Monopoly) 1. Profit maximisation takes place where MC=MR but not where they intersect. The price is fixed on the demand curve and so price must be greater than MR. 2. It depends on the number and impropriety of the substitutes.The more numerous and closer the substitutes, the greater the price elasticity of demand and vice versa. 3. No. In the UK, the former British Rail turned in poor figures for many years. If the ATC curve is everywhere above the demand curve, losses will result and so it will not be profitable to produce. 4. Firms must have some market power it is a price maker. Firm s must keep markets separate. The buyers in each market must have different elasticities of demand. 5. (a)The monopolist does not need to minimise costs to stay in business. Consequently it is productively inefficient and so wastes resources. b)It produces at a point where Price=MC. (c)A perfectly competitive firm produces at the lowest point of the AC curve and so is efficient. (d)Profit is shown by the rectangle sitting above the AC curve bounded by price and output. It is supernormal or economic profit. (e)No. It makes normal profit that is included in ATC. (f)Where MC=MR. (g)In the short run the supply curve of the firm is the MC curve above the point where Price=AVC. In monopoly there is no supply curve that is independent of demand. (h)The Monopolies and Mergers Commission investigates potential monopoly situations.It could force a monopoly to dispel if they considered it to be against the public interest. The criterion is rather vague. (i)It could control prices or force it to work under a licence. Controlled prices would curb monopoly power of fixing too high a price and a limited quantity of production that would both exploit consumers. Again the government would not renew the licence unless the monopoly had performed within the given controls. Guideline answers (Imperfect competition) 1. Construct table from textbook. 2. It depends on the number of firms in the industry and on the strength of market power. 3.A price war can be very damaging for firms in an oligopolistic market. Instead they tend to restrict competition rather than attempt to drive main competitors out of the industry by reducing price. denote and branding is used to restrict competition. 4. At that output there is the greatest difference between total revenue and total cost and so profit is maximised. 5. Markets of perfect competition, monopoly and monopolistic competition are predictable because in them firms act independently. However, this is not so in an oligopolistic market. F irms are independent one firms actions affect competitors.This leads to uncertainty. 6. Draw diagram, then list main differences Perfect competitionMonopolistic competition Short runShort run Supernormal profits and lossesSupernormal profits and losses Demand curve slopingDemand curve horizontal Long runLong run Normal profitsNormal profits Produces at the lowest point Does not produce at the lowest of the AC curvepoint of the AC curve Price=MCPrice does not equal MC 7. Price leadership occurs often in an oligopolistic market. It could appear to be collusive because, after a rife firm raises price, others soon follow. However it is not planned.The dominant firm is acting as a barometer for the rest of the industry that is experiencing the same pressures that caused the leader to alter price in the first place. The firms have not colluded. Guideline answers (Resource allocation) 1. Large corporations can manipulate by spending large sums on advertising and that allows them to sell what they produce rather than what consumers want to buy. Strong trade unions, through industrial action and lobbying, can often get restrictions on imports and subsidies for industries such as coal minelaying and agriculture. Demand is influenced and so resources are not allocated in the best way. 2.Public goods like defence and law and order are demanded collectively and not individually because they are non-excludable. Hence most people think that they should be paid for out of public taxation and be free to the consumer. However, merit goods like health and education are private goods that can be bought and sold in the market place. They are usually under-consumed when externalities are taken into account and so the argument is that the government should intervene because of the external benefits more consumption would bring to society. Hence the case for providing merit goods is not as strong as the case for providing public goods. . They would argue that it would lead to the misallocation of resources. If the good were free to consumers, they would consume up to the point where marginal utility is zero. Here the marginal cost of producing the last unit will be high and inefficiency will result. Consequently goods should not be provided free at the point of consumption. 4. Because social costs and social benefits must be added to private costs to represent true cost. 5. It occurs at the point where there is the greatest excess of total social benefit over total social cost, or where marginal social benefit is equal to marginal social cost.

Exploring ‘‘Woman’s sphere’’ Essay

George Sand and Harriet Beecher Stowe, as the two popular nineteenth-century female authors, they had much in common, such(prenominal) as the strong spirit of indep blockence and fight for rights for wowork force etc. However, they certainly had some differences too. In this essay, it will be talk about their similarities, differences and which one is better. Also, their winner and construction to the society will be discussed too.Sand and Stowe were also facing problems as other women although they were well-known and lucky in their careers. They had aristocratic background nevertheless they had already lived with poverty. They had the experience of turbulent years of civil and social strife. Compared to them, maybe Sand was the poor one. Her love affair was not smoothly. After Sand end her first unhappy marriage, she was living with a series of men, even people called her the most obscene of women. Stowe had the quite different lifestyle. She was more conservative relatively. How ever, in the political area, Sand did not agree that the political rights for women, even suffrage.She valued social equality but not political equality. Stowe favored women suffrage and thought that it was a way to advance the virtues of domesticity. Besides, this two writers also played an active role on public affairs by writing. Sand mainly focused on the injustices on women and the lower classes while Stowe was describing the predicament of slaves. However, each advocated that womans way of looking at things is valued and believed that it could help to improve the world if the men understood it.The most important view of them is that women had the rights to work and own property. Women should be paid equally with man. The love and virtue of women can change the world. It might be a little bit exaggerated but the things they did were actually change the world and improve the rights of women.This two famous female writer were also successful and contributive. Who was a better one to the society? Sand used a male pseudonym and mens clothing to get more freedom. In addition, her lifestyle might be more open than many women nowadays.

Gramscian Hegemony and Its Transformation Framing the Transformation of Hegemony of Charles Dickens’ Oliver Twist in Victorian Era

Nadhira Novembrina be equated with the predominance of hegemony over coercion as the fundamental mode of bourgeois agent in advanced capitalism. Since hegemony pertains to civil society, and civil society prevails over the State, it is the cultural ascendancy of the ruling class that essentially ensures the stability of the capitalist order. For in Gramscis usage here, hegemony means the ideological subordination of the cogitationing class by the bourgeoisie, which enables it to rule by consent. Anderson, 1976a, pp 26IntroductionThe aim of this writing is to explain and prize the relevance of Gramscian hegemony and its transformation toward Charles dickenss Oliver Twist. The focus of this analysis is the assignation protagonist character Oliver Twist, in relation with his society. This brisk written in ordinal century which manifest the era of Victorian middle class struggle in order to gain recognition as a high amicable class than the (working class) lower class. Therefore I would like to concern on middle class society in the era of Victorian in nineteenth century and also how Dickens put Oliver from one social neighborhood to another.This analysis is more concerned with the dynamics of ideology in civil society. This novel has been considerd many times especially using Marxist approach, however it is still worthwhile to dig deep the authenticity or see this work differently by using the same approach. Mandy Macklin (2009) consider Oliver Twist is both reject and maintain the class system as she used Marxism in analyze it. It is acceptable if we see it that way as the novel expose more about class system. Since this novel rejects but at the same time support the class system it is interesting to learn further in what class Oliver Twist is more dominant and which side that Dickens stand in comprehend the existence of class system.Here, I concern that the ideological hegemony plays a big role in the way Dickens depict the class system in his plotting . This writing centered on how Dickens placed Oliver as a civilian from lower society class and end up as higher class.

Managerial Economics and Its Application in Banking Sector a Case of NMB Essay

Is a branch of economics that applies microeconomic analysis to specific business decisions. It bridges economic theory and economics in practice. managerial economics provides a set of tools, techniques, methodologies, guidance and insights that washbowl alleviate in making better and value-adding decisions in business and for analyzing decision problems and developing criteria for choosing the best mathematical solution to problems. Consumer BehaviorIs the study of how individuals, groups, and organizations select, buy, use and dispose of goods, go, ideas, or experiences to satisfy their needs and wants (Kottler, P Keller, K. L. 2009) Consumer Behaviour Referred to as the study of when, why, how, where and what passel do or do not buy crossroads. It blends elements from psychology, sociology, social, and anthropology and economics. it attempts to understand the buyer decision making process, both individually and in groups.It studies characteristics of individual consumers su ch as demographics and behavioural vari adequates in an attempt to understand peoples wants. It in any case tries to assess influences on the consumer from groups such as family, friends, reference groups, and society in general. Belch and Belch typeset Consumer Behaviour as the process and activities people engage in when searching for, selecting, purchasing, apply, evaluating, and disposing of products and services so as to satisfy their needs and desires. DemandIs the willingness and ability to get a product. Consumers total demand for a product for a product is reflected in the demand curve Demand Curve Is a contestation showing the relationship between the price of a product or factor of production and the quantity demanded per time period. The demand curve is usually downward sloping, since consumers will want to buy more as price decreases. Shift in demand curve Is a movement of the demand curve from single position to an different (left or right) as a result of more or less economic change some other than price.A given demand curve is incessantly drawn on the ceteris paribus assumption that all other factors affecting demand (income, taste, etc) are held constant. If any of these changes, however, then this will bring about a reel in the demand curve. For example if income increments, the demand curve will shift to the right, so that more is now demanded at each price than formerly. Application of managerial theory in the place of work a case of issue Microfinance Bank Managerial Economics theories are also applicable in brinking sectors, National Microfinance Bank as a case study.Some of the theories which are applicable to National Microfinance Bank are pricing theories, Demand Analysis and theory of consumer behavior. set theory National Microfinance Bank has always maintained a pricing strategy for its products that keep them affordable to the general public. The deposes aim is to hang in at the same level or below the key competit ors, mainly CRDB and NBC. This strategy has worked well and resulted in a significant growth of NMB Personal Accounts as well as NMB ATM Cards.For few products, price influences consumers perception of overall quality (Kerin R. A et al 2004) Penetration Pricing National Microfinance Bank utilize penetration pricing in setting a low initial price on a new product to appeal immediately to the hand market, for example NMB Internet Banking, has started for Corporate Customers with free registration, compared to other Banks which have registration and transaction fees, this has caused more corporate customers to convinced to join this service and hence increase the deposits for the bank during this hard time of Economic Crisis.Also with launching of Mobile Banking which came with low initial pricing for money maneuvers services, balances and bank statement enquiries, has encouraged more customers to register for the service to its affordability, with now over 150,000 customers hav e registered for NMB Mobile Banking. There were also no charges for ATMs in balances and bank statements enquiries while other Banks do have charges in balances and bank statement enquiries. From 1st February, 2010 NationalMicrofinance Bank has introduced new tariff guide whereby for the first time NMB charges Tshs 50/= for fibber withdrawal fee and Tshs 100 for ATM mini statement. Demand Analysis Refer to the demand theory as want, need or desire for a product backed the money to purchase it. Due to high demand of consumers, the bank has been forced to add some products to meet the consumers demand. Up to 1st January, 2010 the bank has over 134 branches all over the country, 276 ATMs and different product and services. Some of the new products and services which introduced to meet the consumers demand were as follows.NMB Junior Account Is the broadside whereby a customer can get extra bonus above normal interest rate, no service fee, quarterly interest payment and it encourages s avings for upcoming use. NMB student Account As the bank seen the high demand of students to save their money they decided to open NMB student Account. By looking in their wampum they put affordable opening balance of Tshs 2,000/= only. Many students now opt for this type of account. Money Transfer Is the transfer of money through brisks phone. As at present world is more advanced in technology, bank decided to introduce this service to meet the customers demand.Customers can be able to view their balances, recharge their mobiles phone, transfer of money through ATM and Mobile Banking. This product is of high demand nowadays as many customers enrolled in this programme. Internet Banking Through this service the consumers can easily have the access to their bank account, National Microfinance Bank has introduced this service starting with Corporate Customers, where in next phase will be able to do transactions through this service. No registration fee at 1st phase where corporate customers can view their account transactions and soft touch their bank statement online.Demand for NMB Internet Banking has been increasing due to many of the corporate customers has a lot of operations and vast network country wide, and many requires online statement to simplify their operations including selling of different products after making collections through NMB. Demand function As it is a form of notation that tie in the dependent variables, quantity demanded with various self-governing variables that determine quantity demanded such as price of a product, income, price of substitute products and advertising.Changes in any of these independent variables will affect quantity demanded differently. As to relate with our case study, this demand function will also apply. Price is an independent variable that determines quantity demanded of some product. In order to penetrate the market NMB offered free of charge in get outing balance, mini statement and cash withdraw. It only charges Tshs 400 per month for personal accounts as service fee regardless of how many times someone use that service.NMB introduces charges for withdrawal of Tshs 500 through ATM per month previously it was Tshs 400, balance check cost Tsh 50, ATM mini statement cost Tshs 100. This rise in price charges affects the quantity demanded. This shows that price is an independent variable to quantity demand. As the price rises the quantity demand goes down. Advertisement is another independent variable that determines quantity demanded of some product. Advertisement is an art of keeping people aware with some product or service you need people to know.NMB Mobile Banking launched September, 2009, up to October, 2009 few customers were registered to this service and few were aware of this service, so NMB decided to engage in advertisement for this service through posters, Television, Radio, Brochures, Newsletters, promotions, the records shows high response of people to use NMB Mobile Banking from November till to date as over 150,000 customers have registered to this service compared to 100,000 registered in previous months. This shows that advertisement affects quantity demanded as many customers were able to use that service due to awareness of that service advertisement. save, price of a substitute product is another Independent variable that determines quantity demanded of some product. NMB offers free charges in registration for Internet Banking for Corporate Customers compared to other banks such as NBC and CRDB which have registration fee, and due to its large network country wide, these caused many corporate customers to be convinced to join NMB Internet Banking services and hence quantity demanded of this service to be high due to the above factors. Determinant of Demand Demand for a good or service is determined by many different factors.In relation to our case study, they also applied as follows The price of the Commodity The amount one buys will dep end on the price. The lower the price of the goodness the greater the quantity they will buy. In NMB there is no charge for opening account for political relation salaried workers, this plays a high demand for government employees to open account with NMB, after they enroll with NMB they enjoy using other products such as NMB Junior, NMB Bonus account and NMB mobile which have initial price, this campaign to increase number of customers.As the lower the price of the commodity, the greater the quantity he will buy, this also cause many government employees to open account with NMB, this is where ceteris paribus and vice-versa will apply. Consumer Income As consumers Income change, the demand for goods and services will change. For most products, demand Increase when consumers have larger incomes. In relation to our case study, NMB main customers were from government salaried workers. This tends to increase the demand for them to save due to surplus they have. Price of Related goo ds When the prices of related goods change demand may Increase or decrease, ceteris paribus.This also applies in NMB as many people were in belief that DECI SACCOS pays higher Interest, they withdraw their money from their accounts and transfer to DECI SACCOS accounts, and quantity demanded for NMB services decreased during that period. Taxation levels on goods Higher taxes on goods causes rise in their prices and hence cause the demand for the products to fall and vice versa. Due to high tax on the machines imported and experts direct those machines, NMB rises the ATM charges that causes a slightly fall in demand of that service due to those charges.Theory of consumer behavior and its applications in NMB Consumer behavior is how consumers allocate their money incomes among goods and services. A consumer is a unit of consumption and one of the agents in the commodity market. A consumer has a certain amount of income he can use to buy goods and services from the market. Given the fi xed income and fixed prices of the goods, the consumer has to decide whether to buy a particular good and what amount of it to buy. So, the consumer faces the problem of choice of commodity.This problem can be lick on the basis of the economic theory of consumer behavior consumers choose the best bundle of goods they can afford. This applies also in our case study as how people allocate their money in the different services offered by NMB example they choose to use ATM services, mobile banking services, internet services and different bank accounts offered. This theory helps bank to improve in their strategies by looking in the psychology of how consumers think, feel and select between different alternative products offered. They sometimes add a survey to know how customers perceive their services.Surveys can be in different groups users example to students, farmers, government employees, individual person and different organizations used NMB services. The results obtained help t o improve some services and sometimes to know what they need and introduce new product according to their needs. They tried to compare their services offered with other banks they offer. Moreover the psychology of how consumer is influenced by his or her environment e. g. culture, family, signs, media etc. This also applies in our case study as NMB has many branches all over the country compared to other banks.When they win to get customers they tried to offer good services to them as being attracted to convince their families and other co-workers to join with their bank. They use also media to advertise their products as they have advertisement which shows the importance of mobile banking. When people saw that advertisement and compare with the really life they saw the importance of it and engaged in that mobile service. As they see they can buy LUKU even in late hours, they can transfer money at any time they wish using their mobile phones, check balance and mini statement without going counter.